Research & Writing Guide

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Knowing how to use our libraries will help you write a good paper.   As a member of the Touro College community, you have access to the resources and services of all our libraries which are located throughout the metropolitan New York area and on Long Island.  The gateway to these resources and services is our Virtual Library (www.touro.edu/library/).  It contains a brief overview of our resources and services on our Welcome screen.  It also has Library Locations & Hours with maps and contact information , and a Find Your Touro Library feature where you can locate your Touro affiliation and identify the library that is best for you.subject specializations.  You will want to use our Guide & Tutorials to help you find reliable information sources in our collections and via our resources.

Of all your writing assignments, the research or term paper will probably be the most difficult.  In writing a term paper, you must act as an authority on a topic.  You must show that you can select a topic, find an interesting question to ask about it, and through research and reasoning, come up with a convincing answer to your question.

To write a good term paper, you must use the libraries effectively.  You must also credit or document your information sources, and avoid plagiarism.  These skills can be applied to other writing exercises, such as compositions, reviews, and essays.  They will also come in handy when taking notes for a speech.
 

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Is this topic interesting?  If you enjoy the subject, doing research should be easier.  If you show some enthusiasm in your writing, you will usually be rewarded.

Does this subject fit the course?  Keep in mind the expectations your professor has for the project.  If you have doubts about your subject, discuss it with your Professor.

Is this topic worth pursuing?  Your project may be something you have to do, but it should also be something of value.  Your project should be original.  It is a waste of your time and the time of your professor to just rehash things said many times before or to dwell on the obvious.  Being original does not mean you have to discover a new law of nature; it means using a fresh approach to a subject or taking your own position on an issue.

Can this topic be researched?  Many topics do not work well as research projects.  Some topics are too obscure or too recent to have generated much literature in the libraries.  Other topics may require critical thinking, but do not lend themselves to research.  Popular topics are not always easy to research because of the competition for resources.

Does this topic match the scope of the project?  Your topic should be neither too broad nor too narrow.  Some topics can be adjusted by making them larger or smaller.  Some can be adjusted by comparing them to something else or by looking at them from an unusual angle.  Keep in mind the size of the project.  A three-page freshman paper will require a different focus than a twenty-page senior essay.

Remember that as you start your project, your topic may be just a vague idea.  But, as you learn more, your understanding will change, and so will your topic.
 

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Before you dive into your research project, do some background reading.  If you don't already know something about your subject, background reading will help you get up to speed.  It will also initiate you to the jargon and terms of special subject areas.  As you read, jot down potential relevant keywords and phrases to use in searching for additional information.

Your library's reference collection will be especially useful to you at the start of your project.  Reference collections contain encyclopedias that will provide you with the established, non-controversial body of knowledge on your topic.  Encyclopedias will explain how your subject is subdivided, and help you select a manageable topic.  They will also help you check facts, find statistics, and learn about people.  Every discipline has encyclopedias with articles that range from dictionary-type definitions to comprehensive essays complete with bibliographies.  Encyclopedias are good starting points, but they should never be used as the main or only source of college-level research.
 

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• If you need a detailed introduction to a subject, find a textbook.  Questions or problems may be included, as well as bibliographies for further reading.

• For a scholarly overview, particularly in the sciences, look for a monograph.  It may also include questions or problems, and bibliographies for further reading.

• For a comprehensive chronological overview, particularly in chemistry and biology, find a treatise.  It will incorporate pertinent writings for the period, provide an extensive bibliography for further study, and can provide insights on research yet to be done.

• To obtain a prepared list of sources on your topic, get a bibliography.

• For recommended sources on your topic, look for a guide to the literature.

• For information of a controversial nature, or on a topic not yet covered in a monograph, textbook, or treatise, look for an article.  Articles are short compositions, usually under forty pages, written on a specific subject.  They are written on both "scholarly" (by experts about work they have done) and "popular" (by journalists about work done by others) topics.  They form independent parts of books (encyclopedias, etc.) and periodical publications (journals, magazines, newspapers).

• To identify articles on your topic, use an index or abstracting service.  These will generally lead you to periodical publications (journals, magazines, newspapers).  They may also lead you to biographies, reviews, theses, dissertations, technical reports, patents, government documents, proceedings, etc.

• If you are writing about a person, a biography may help.  Biographies may appear in books, as well as in dictionaries, directories, encyclopedias, and handbooks.

• When writing about a person, be sure to see if s/he has written an autobiography about himself or herself.

• For literary works (short stories, novels, plays) invented or imagined, ask for fiction.

• For literature based on fact, look for non-fiction.

• If you need a collection of literary pieces (poems, prose, or both) by a particular author, look for an anthology.

• For highlights of important points and critical analyses regarding the quality and usefulness of books, periodicals, products, services, etc., look for reviews of them.  Reviews of research in a field of study contain extensive bibliographies.

• For illustrations, songs, and speeches, find an index to them.

• To find out who initiated a famous line or saying, find a book of quotations.

• For new findings in a field of research, look for a thesis or dissertation from degree granting institutions of higher learning.

• For findings in a field funded by grants, look for a technical report.  These detail a research project, have extensive bibliographies for further study, and can provide insights on research yet to be done.

• If you are working on an invention, or need to know how something works, search for an applicable patent.  Most nations only recognize their own patent literature, so you may have to search them all.

• To find out if a government agency has studied or conducted hearings on your topic, look for government documents.  Results of government efforts are buried everywhere, from encyclopedias and tables to directories and bibliographies.

• If your research involves the official reports or papers of a society or meeting, look for its proceedings or transactions.

• For an authority or acknowledged measure of comparison, find an appropriate standard.  Standards can specify the steps for constructing something and often become part of the code that makes products compatible.  Some are required, like federal Military Specifications, but most are voluntary and developed by agencies like the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

• If you need the names and addresses of individuals, companies, organizations, products, or services, look for them in a directory.

• For general how-to information, or something with background information followed by specifics, get a handbook.  Some contain only tables, charts, and similarly formatted information.   Others contain detailed essays with extensive bibliographies.

• If you need detail, something comprehensive or instructive, get a manual.  There are manuals on nearly every topic, from operating equipment to proper personnel procedures.

• For the meaning of a word, phrase, abbreviation, or other term use a dictionary.  Some are encyclopedic, some are bi- or multi-lingual, and some, as in chemistry, are identification sources.

• For definition of words in a particular field or discipline, use a glossary.

• For synonyms, antonyms, and other related words, use a thesaurus.

• For a summary of what has happened, find a yearbook or annual.  Some are supplements to encyclopedia sets, while others are statistical summaries.

• To find out what has happened over time or to obtain a list of milestones, look for a history or chronology.

• For fast access to facts and information, consult an almanac.  In some sciences, like astronomy, almanacs contain charts, tables, and lists that may not change each year.

• For figures and other numerical data, look in statistical sources.

• For mathematics, physics, and chemistry, a book of tables may help.

• For a depiction of the earth as it was, is, and will be, find a map.  Maps also cover the planets, moons, and constellations.

• For a collection of tables, charts, or pictures that systematically illustrate a subject, consult an atlas.  Atlases are not only cartographical, geographical, or geological; there are atlases of mathematical functions, medical atlases of the body and its parts, and biological atlases of plants and animals.

• For something that explains and illustrates less specifically than a manual, look for a guide.   Used mostly in laboratories, guides help researchers perform tasks the same way each time, in the best and safest way possible.

• For descriptions and illustrations of items in real life settings, find a field guide.

• When you need a book which demonstrates the format to use when typing your paper, particularly its footnotes and bibliography, consult a style manual.

• For a list of items in some order, consult a catalog.  In addition to library catalogs, there are catalogs of satellites, chemicals, and astronomical bodies.

• For a list of items and their locations, consult a union list.  Libraries have union lists of materials and where they can be found.

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• Primary sources are the most direct kind of information.  They are original documents or other first-hand evidence written or created during the time you are studying.  Different fields of study have different types of primary sources.  Common types of primary sources are diaries, notes, letters, autobiographies, interviews, statistics, photographs, original works of art, works of literature, and public documents.

• Secondary sources are one step removed from primary sources.  They are opinions, commentaries, evaluations, selections, summaries, and/or interpretations of primary materials.  Common types of secondary sources are biographies, dissertations, journal articles, and monographies.  They also include indexes, abstracts, and bibliographies used to locate secondary sources.

• Examples of primary and secondary sources in different fields of study follow.

The distinctions between primary and secondary sources can be ambiguous.  A source may be a primary source for one research paper and a secondary source for another.  It depends on the relationship of the source to the research question.  The book Abe Lincoln Grows Up by Carl Sandburg would be a primary source in a paper on the literary style of Carl Sandburg and a secondary source in a paper on Abraham Lincoln.  Time is often a defining element.  A recent newspaper article is not usually a primary source, but a newspaper article from the 1860s may be a primary source for research on the Civil War.

You will also have to learn to distinguish between scholarly, trade, and popular materials.  In academic research, there is a clear preference for scholarly materials.
 

• Scholarly materials have a serious appearance and contain very little advertising.  They are written for professors, students, or researchers.  They are signed by authors who have expertise or have done research, and who are affiliated with or sponsored by a professional association.  The materials follow a format that includes an abstract, literature review, methodology, results, conclusion, and references to sources, either in footnotes, endnotes, or bibliographies.  They may also include tables, graphs, or illustrations to support the research findings.  The materials are reviewed by a board of experts and called "peer-reviewed."  They attempt to advance knowledge, and use language that assumes the reader has some knowledge of the discipline.

• Trade or professional materials may have a bright cover and contain advertising that appeals to those in the industry or field.  They are written to provide information of use to that particular industry or field of study.  They are unsigned, follow no specific format, and are reviewed by general editors.

• Popular materials may have a bright cover, and contain many glossy picturess and lots of advertising.  They are written to attract a broad segment of the population and are usually published commercially.  They may be unsigned, or the author may be a scholar, free lance writer, or editor.  The materials follow no specific format, sometimes include references to sources, and may include tables, graphs, or illustrations.  They have second- or third-hand information, are opinions on a contemporary issue, and attempt to inform/entertain a wide audience of topics of general interest.

• Examples of scholarly, trade, and popular materials in different fields of study follow.

Both types of sources and materials can be found in all types of publications and formats throughout our collections.
 

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• Formats which capture performances are referred to as "audio-visual materials" (audiotapes, audio-CDs, videotapes, DVDs, slides).  These materials convey information primarily by sound and image, and require special audio and viewing equipment (CD/audiocassette player, TV and VCR/DVD player, slide projector/viewer).

• Formats which miniature documents are called "microforms" (microfilm, microfiche).  These materials convey information primarily by image, and require special viewing equipment (reader/printers, etc.).  They include many types of publications, from fiction, nonfiction, and biographies, to articles, government documents, and standards.

• Formats which allow you to find information quickly, easily, and various points of entry, are commonly referred to as "electronic resources."  These are generally databases or collections of related facts, statistics, and items of information.  They appear in a variety of media or formats (diskettes, CD-ROMs, online [World Wide Web]) and include all types of publications (dictionaries, encyclopedias, index and abstracting services).  Electronic resources convey information primarily by conversion and compression, and require use of a computer.

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As you learn from your different sources, you will refine or modify your topic.  This process will continue until you write the last draft of your paper.  As you refine your paper's topic, you must also set its tone.  To do this, decide whether your goal is to analyze, persuade, or inform.  Then, write something down.  Even a few words will help you think clearly and keep you on track.  As you continue to refine your topic, these words will develop into an outline and help you form the thesis of your paper.  Think of questions that you would want your research to address.  They will give you direction and help you maintain focus as you sort through and evaluate your sources and tie your ideas together.
 

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There are several ways of taking notes.  You can take them on a set of index cards.  These cards make it easy to arrange and rearrange information and help organize the paper. You can write in a notebook, beginning every entry on a fresh page.  You can also use letter- or legal-size sheets clipped together according to one system or another.  Using a word processor will save you time and should improve the accuracy with which you transcribe material.  When you do not have access to a computer, take notes by hand and transfer them to your computer later.

There are three methods of note-taking.  For each one, be sure to keep an accurate record of the exact page numbers on which the material is found.
 

• If you only want to record the general idea of large amounts of material, summarize what you have read.

• If you require detailed notes on specific sentences and passages but do not need the exact wording, paraphrase or restate the material in your own words.

• When you believe that a sentence or passage in its original wording might make an effective addition to your paper, transcribe the material exactly as it appears.  Use quotation marks in your notes to distinguish it from summarized and paraphrased material.  If a quotation continues to another page, note where the page break occurs, since you may only use a portion of what you transcribe in your paper.

• For books: jot down the author, title, edition (if any), publisher, place and year of publication, and exact pages on which you find your material.

• For articles: jot down the author and title of the article; the title of the periodical (journal, magazine, newspaper); its volume, issue number, and date; and the exact pages on which you find your material.

• If your source is electronic: include the type of medium (tape, disk, CD-ROM, online), availability (sufficient for retrieval of the item from its supplier [FTP address, directory, file; e-mail address, message name; TELNET directory, file]), and year of publication.

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1. The introductory section is where you introduce your topic, explain  why it is important or interesting, and outline the game plan for the rest of the paper.

 
2. The middle content or body section is where you build your argument in detail and work toward an answer to your original question.  Pretend you are a lawyer introducing evidence that supports your case and helping the jury (reader) see how the evidence leads to your conclusion.

 
3. The conclusion is where you state your principal answer to the original question and briefly review the supporting evidence.  A good way to finish is to indicate some questions that remain unanswered.  You may wish to suggest possible directions for further research on this topic or broader implications of the problem you have discussed.

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As you write your outline, you can begin to shape the information you have into a thesis statement for your paper.  A thesis statement is a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your point of view.  It is your answer to the central question or problem you have raised.  Writing this statement will enable you to see where you are heading and remain on a productive path as you plan and write your paper.

As you finalize your outline, carefully review your notes to see how strongly they will support the various points you want to make.  Delete everything that is irrelevant to your thesis statement, or, that might weaken your argument.  Keep only the ideas and information that will help you accomplish what you set out to do, and that will lead your readers to care about your investigation, presentation, and conclusions.  Your final outline need not be written in complete sentences, but it should contain your key thoughts and information sources.  It should be detailed enough to guide you through the first draft of your paper.
 

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Thesis:    A blend of social strategies is needed to alleviate the situation of those trapped in long-term urban poverty.

  I.    Introduction:    A relatively small sector of the urban poverty population, the so-called underclass manifests a disproportionate share of social pathologies.  Alleviation of these pathologies will require a blend of prior conservative and liberal approaches.

 II.    History of the Issue

        A.    Urban poverty to the War on Poverty (1965)
                - focus on the Depression Era

        B.    The War on Poverty and the Great Society
                - L.B. Johnson's attempt to end poverty

        C.    Dismantlement of Great Society Programs
                - attempts (R. Nixon - R. Reagan) to dismantle War on Poverty programs

        Sources:   Katz's Poverty and Policy, Lens' Poverty: America's Enduring
                          Paradox, Ginzberg's Great Society, Jordan's (ed) Great Society:
                          A Twenty Year Critique

  III.   Current Status of the underclass

         A.    Size and definition
                - controversy surrounding nomenclature and boundaries of urban poverty

         B.    Geographical concentrations
                - role of historical and current racial segregation in formation of an underclass

        Sources:  Statistical Abstract of the United States, We the People: An Atlas
                          of America's Ethnic Diversity, Schnare's Persistence of Racial
                          Segregation, Tobin's (ed) Divided Neighborhoods

IV.    Social Pathologies

        A.    Unemployment
                - joblessness in inner cities and its impact on poverty

        B.    Alcoholism and substance abuse
                - their role in poor neighborhoods

        C.    Teen pregnancies and female-headed households
                - role of the family in poverty areas and its impact on intergenerational poverty

        Sources:   Statistical Abstract of the United States, articles via ProQuest and
          MasterFILE Select

  V.    Solutions

         A.    Conservative approaches
                - critique of Murray's Losing Ground

         B.    Liberal approaches
                - critique of Wilson's The Truly Disadvantaged

 VI.    Conclusion:    A balanced approach is needed.  We must develop new social, service programs, strengthen the existing social safety net, and encourage increased personal responsibility.
 

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In your paper, you will create an argument that moves from a reasonable beginning to a sensible conclusion.  Your paper will, in effect, answer the following questions:
 

1. Why is the question I'm asking interesting and/or important?

 
2. What have I found that leads to the answer I believe is most persuasive or logical?

 
3. What are the implications of my answer for a broader understanding of the topic and for questions that remain unanswered?

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Common ideas and knowledge need not be documented.  For example, there is no need to indicate where you learned that palm trees grow in Hawaii.  However, if you tell your reader that the average palm fruit weighs fifty pounds, you should note the source of this fact.  Similarly, there is no need to document that San Juan is the capital of Puerto Rico.  However, if you tell your reader that the population of Puerto Rico is 3,522,037, this fact should be documented.  It is not a stable, unchanging fact, and if you have not used the best source, it may be out of date.

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          In the nineteenth century nature still appeared as a set of laws in space and
          time in which man and man's intervention in nature could be ignored in principle,
          if not in practice.

The following are two examples of how to avoid plagiarism.
 

• Example 1, a direct quotation, shows how the material would appear if quoted properly.

    According to Heisenberg, "In the nineteenth century nature still appeared as a
    set of laws in space and time in which man and man's nature could be ignored
    in principle, if not  in practice."

Do not just drop the quotation in, but introduce it by using phrases like "according to" and "in the opinion of."  Indicate the source of the quotation with a footnote or the parenthetical reference used here.
 

• Example 2 shows how the same material might be paraphrased, but still documented.

Do not plagiarize.  It is a form of intellectual dishonesty.  By failing to note that material has come from another source, or by failing to acknowledge a direct quotation, you appear to be claiming that they are your own.  This is just as serious an offense as copying another student's answers on an exam.  Touro College, like all academic institutions, does not permit plagiarism.

Touro College bulletins list plagiarism as one of the offenses which may subject a student to disciplinary action.  This includes the sale/purchase of term papers, essays, and other written assignments.  It is a lot easier to spot than most students realize, and brings with it severe penalties up to and including expulsion.
 

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A neat presentation can influence your reader almost as much as clear reasoning.  A neat paper enables the reader to follow your argument.  Neatness also shows that you want to communicate effectively and that you take pride in your work.  The following tips will be further elaborated upon in your style manual.
 

• Word process or type your paper if you possibly can.  When using a word processor, use a standard, easily readable type-face (Times Roman, etc.) and a font-size of 12.

• Always double-space.

• Use ample margins: an inch or so at the left and right, a bit more at the top and bottom.

• Number the pages, usually in the upper right-hand corner.

• Write in complete sentences and use relatively short paragraphs.

• Staple your paper in the upper left-hand side of the paper only.

• Observe the rules of proper documentation as described in your style manual and conclude your paper with a list of works cited.

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Documentation is how you acknowledge information sources.  All quotations, paraphrases, and ideas taken from the work of another must be documented, as must facts that require verification or that are not common knowledge.  Failure to give credit to your sources results in plagiarism.

Documentation is most often achieved through two basic types of citation.
 

1. Bibliographic citations describe the whole document the researcher has used (a book, pamphlet, essay in a book, periodical or encyclopedia article).  These citations appear in an alphabetical list (bibliography) at the very end of the paper.

 
2. Parenthetical references placed throughout the text of the paper, indicate the exact location in the source where the fact was found. This information may also be provided in the form of "footnotes" or "endnotes."

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• The ACS Style Guide: a Manual for Authors and Editors.  2nd ed.  Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1997.

• The AMA Style Guide for Business Writing.  New York: AMACOM, 1996.

• American Medical Association Manual of Style: a Guide for Authors and Editors.  9th ed.  Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1998.

• The Chicago Manual of Style.  15th ed.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.

• Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.  6th ed.  New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2003.

• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.  5th ed.  Washington, DC: 2001.

• Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations.  6th ed.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

• Li, Xia and Nancy B. Crane. Electronic Styles: a Handbook for Citing Electronic Information.  2nd ed.  Medford, NJ: Information Today, 1996.

• Walker, Janice R. and Todd Taylor. The Columbia Guide to Online Style.  New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.

The Style Guides page has links to many Web sites with instructions on documenting traditional and electronic materials, and examples of how to format citations according to the various style manuals (APA, CBE, Chicago, MLA, Turabian, etc.).  In addition, with the Citation Style for Research Papers page, you can select a style (APA, Turabian, MLA, Chicago, or AMA) and publication format and use examples to create citations.  You may also wish to use  NoodleTools (MPA & APA via NoodleBib).  Your professor may have created a NoodleBib Class Name so you can share your citation/reference lists with him/her.  This enables your professor to assist you out by viewing your progress and adding helpful comments.  For detail on using this program, read our Creating Your Bibliography with NoodleTools.  To learn more about citation and reference formats and generators, consult Style Guides.
 
 

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Many other helpful guide books on how to write term (research) papers may be found by using the Books & Media (Library Catalog).

We hope you have found this guide useful in your research projects and writing assignments.  Please direct any comments and suggestions to your librarian.
 

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